Tax 11.19 NoteThe paper purchased by Company A for the catalogs is not subject to Wisconsin use tax.
Tax 11.19 Note2) Assume the same facts as 1) above, except that the company selling the paper is located in Wisconsin.
Tax 11.19 NoteThe paper purchased by Company A for the catalogs is not subject to Wisconsin sales tax.
Tax 11.19(5m)(a)(a) Section 77.54 (25m), Stats., provides an exemption from Wisconsin sales and use tax for the sales price from the sale of and the storage, use, or other consumption of catalogs, and the envelopes in which the catalogs are mailed, that are designed to advertise and promote the sale of merchandise or to advertise the services of individual business firms. Tax 11.19(5m)(b)(b) “Catalog” is defined in s. 77.51 (1fr), Stats., to mean a printed and bound, stitched, sewed, or stapled book containing a list and description of property or services for sale, regardless of whether a price is specified. Tax 11.19(5s)(a)(a) Section 77.54 (59), Stats., provides an exemption from Wisconsin sales and use tax for the sales price from the sales of and the storage, use, or other consumption of advertising and promotional direct mail. Tax 11.19(5s)(b)(b) “Advertising and promotional direct mail” is defined in s. 77.51 (1ag), Stats., to mean direct mail that has the primary purpose of attracting public attention to a product, person, business, or organization or to attempt to sell, popularize, or secure financial support for a product, person, business, or organization. Tax 11.19(6)(6) Exempt purchasers. Sales of printed material to federal and Wisconsin governmental units, federally recognized American Indian tribes or bands in Wisconsin, Wisconsin public schools, certain nonprofit religious, charitable, educational, or scientific organizations, and certain title holding entities described under section 501 (c) (2) of the Internal Revenue Code holding a certificate of exempt status are exempt under s. 77.54 (9a) or 77.55 (1), Stats. Sales to federal and Wisconsin governmental units and public schools need not be supported by exemption certificates, if a copy of the purchase order from the organization is retained or the governmental unit’s certificate of exempt status number is recorded on the bill of sale. Sales to nonprofit organizations holding a certificate of exempt status can be documented as exempt by recording the certificate of exempt status number on the bill of sale. Tax 11.19 NoteNote: Section Tax 11.19 interprets ss. 77.51 (1fr), (8), and (13h), 77.52 (1) and (2) (a) 11., 77.54 (2m), (9a), (15), (25), (25m), (43), and (59), and 77.55 (1), Stats. Tax 11.19 NoteNote: The interpretations in s. Tax 11.19 are effective under the general sales and use tax law on and after September 1, 1969, except: (a) The exemption for printing or imprinting of tangible personal property furnished by customers and used out-of-state in sub. (2) (a) became effective March 1, 1970; (b) The exemption for advertising materials used out-of-state in sub. (4) (a) became effective May 21, 1972; (c) The second class mail standard described in sub. (3) became effective August 1, 1974; (d) The exemption for sales of shoppers guides became effective July 1, 1978; (e) The exemption for ingredients and components of shoppers guides, newspapers and periodicals described in sub. (2) (d) became effective July 2, 1983; (f) The definition of newspaper in sub. (3) (a) and the limitation of the periodical exemption to “periodicals sold by subscription” became effective July 2, 1983; (g) The exemption for controlled circulation publication reflected in subs. (2) (b) and (3) (b) became effective September 1, 1983, pursuant to 1985 Wis. Act 149; (h) The provision for foreign publishers described in sub. (2) (e) became effective January 1, 1980 for publishers of books or periodicals or both other than catalogs and January 1, 1990, for all other foreign publishers pursuant to 1989 Wis. Act 336; (i) The definition of storage and use for purposes of imposing use tax does not include storing or using raw materials becoming printed materials to be shipped outside Wisconsin effective October 1, 1993, pursuant to 1993 Wis. Act 16; (j) The sales and use tax exemption for raw materials becoming printed materials transported and used solely outside Wisconsin became effective December 1, 1997, pursuant to 1997 Wis. Act 27; (k) The exemption for periodicals sold by subscription by educational associations and corporations which are exempt under s. 77.54 (9a) (f), Stats., became effective December 1, 1997 pursuant to 1997 Wis. Act 27; (L) The exemption for catalogs became effective April 1, 2009 pursuant to 2007 Wis. Act 20; (m) The change of the term “gross receipts” to “sales price” and the separate impositions of tax on coins and stamps sold above face value under s. 77.52 (1) (b), Stats., certain leased property affixed to real property under s. 77.52 (1) (c), Stats., and digital goods under s. 77.52 (1) (d), Stats., became effective October 1, 2009, pursuant to 2009 Wis. Act 2; (n) The definition of “direct mail” became effective October 1, 2009, pursuant to 2009 Wis. Act 2; (o) The definition of “advertising and promotional direct mail” became effective May 27, 2010, pursuant to 2009 Wis. Act 330; (p) The sales and use tax exemption for advertising and promotional direct mail became effective July 1, 2013, pursuant to 2011 Wis. Act 32; and (q) Services resulting in advertising and promotional direct mail were excluded from taxable services effective July 1, 2013, pursuant to 2013 Wis. Act 20. Tax 11.19 HistoryHistory: Cr. Register, August, 1979, No. 284, eff. 9-1-79; am. (2) (c) and (4) (b), Register, December, 1983, No. 336, eff. 1-1-84; am. (2) (b) and (3) (c), cr. (2) (d), r. and recr. (3) (a) and (b), Register, September, 1984, No. 345, eff. 10-1-84; am. (2) (a) and (b), (3) (b) and (4) (a), Register, June, 1990, No. 414, eff. 7-1-90; am. (1), (2) (a), (c) and (d), (3) (d), (4) (a) and (b) and (5), cr. (2) (e), Register, March, 1991, No. 423, eff. 4-1-91; am. (2) (e) and (4) (b), cr. (2) (f) and (5), renum. (5) to be (6), Register, April, 1994, No. 460, eff. 5-1-94; am. (2) (d), (f), (5) (intro.), (b) and (6), Register, June, 1999, No. 522, eff. 7-1-99; EmR0924: emerg. am. (1), (2) (a) to (d), (e) 2., 4., (f), (3) (c), (4) (a), (5) (intro.), (a) and (6), cr. (2) (cm) and (5m), r. and recr. (4) (b), eff. 10-1-09; CR 09-090: am. (1), (2) (a) to (d), (e) 2., 4., (f), (3) (c), (4) (a), (5) (intro.), (a) and (6), cr. (2) (cm) and (5m), r. and recr. (4) (b) Register May 2010 No. 653, eff. 6-1-10; CR 10-094: am. (1), (2) (a), (d) Register November 2010 No. 659, eff. 12-1-10; CR 13-011: cr. (2) (dm), (5s) Register August 2013 No. 692, eff. 9-1-13; CR 14-006: renum. (2) (a) to (2) (a) (intro.) and am., cr. (2) (a) 1. to 3. Register August 2014 No. 704, eff. 9-1-14; CR 20-018: am. (6) Register July 2021 No. 787, eff. 8-1-21. Tax 11.20Tax 11.20 Property used in qualified research and property used to raise research animals. Tax 11.20(1)(a)(a) “Animals” include bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Tax 11.20(1)(b)(b) “Biotechnology” means the application of biotechnologies, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid techniques, biochemistry, molecular and cellular biology, genetics, genetic engineering, biological cell fusion, and other bioprocesses, that use living organisms or parts of an organism to produce or modify products to improve plants or animals or improve animal health, develop microorganisms for specific uses, identify targets for small molecule pharmaceutical development, or transform biological systems into useful processes and products. Tax 11.20(1)(c)(c) “Biotechnology business” means a business certified, as described in sub. (4), by the department to be primarily engaged in the application of biotechnologies that use a living organism or parts of an organism to produce or modify products to improve plants or animals, develop microorganisms for specific uses, identify targets for small molecule pharmaceutical development, or transform biological systems into useful processes and products. Tax 11.20(1)(d)(d) “Institution of higher education” means an accredited educational organization providing education after completion of high school, including undergraduate, graduate, and professional education. Tax 11.20(1)(e)(e) “Machinery” has the meaning given in s. 70.11 (27) (a) 2., Stats., and means a structure or assemblage of parts that transmits forces, motion or energy from one part to another in a predetermined way by electrical, mechanical or chemical means, but “machinery” does not include a building. Tax 11.20(1)(f)(f) “Person” includes any natural person, firm, partnership, limited liability company, joint venture, joint stock company, association, public or private corporation, the United States, the state, including any unit or division of the state, any county, city, village, town, municipal utility, municipal power district or other governmental unit, cooperative, unincorporated cooperative association, estate, trust, receiver, personal representative, any other fiduciary, any other legal entity, and any representative appointed by order of any court or otherwise acting on behalf of others. Tax 11.20(1)(h)(h) “Qualified research” means qualified research as defined under section 41 (d) (1) of the Internal Revenue Code, except that it includes qualified research that is funded by a member of a combined group for another member of a combined group. Tax 11.20(1)(i)(i) “Used exclusively” means used to the exclusion of all other uses except for other use not exceeding 5% of total use. Tax 11.20(2)(2) Exemptions for property and items used in qualified research. Tax 11.20(2)(a)(a) The sales price from the sale of and the storage, use, or other consumption of machinery and equipment, including attachments, parts, and accessories, and other tangible personal property or items or property under s. 77.52 (1) (b) or (c), Stats., that are sold to any of the following and that are consumed or destroyed or lose their identities while being used exclusively and directly in qualified research is exempt: Tax 11.20(2)(a)3.3. A combined group member who is conducting qualified research for another combined group member and that other combined group member is a person described under subd. 1. or 2. Tax 11.20(2)(b)(b) For purposes of determining whether a person is engaged primarily in biotechnology in this state under par. (a), only activities in Wisconsin are considered. When a person conducts activities in Wisconsin in addition to biotechnology, the person must allocate its activities between its biotechnology activities and its other activities using a reasonable and consistent method. If a person’s biotechnology activities in Wisconsin are more than 50% of its total activities in Wisconsin, the person is engaged primarily in biotechnology in this state. Tax 11.20 NoteExamples: (1) Company A performs research and development services at locations in Wisconsin for its customers. This is Company A’s only activity in Wisconsin. Some of the research and development services are biotechnology and some of the research and development services are not biotechnology. Using the sales price of its services as the measure of activity, more than 50% of the total sales price Company A receives for performing all of its research and development services in Wisconsin is derived from biotechnology. Therefore, Company A is primarily engaged in biotechnology in Wisconsin.
Tax 11.20 Note(2) Company B performs research and development services at locations outside of Wisconsin that constitute biotechnology. Company B also manufactures tangible personal property at a building in Wisconsin, assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. The manufacturing activity does not constitute biotechnology. This is Company B’s only activity in Wisconsin. The products manufactured in Wisconsin are used by Company B in performing its research and development services at locations outside of Wisconsin. Company B is not engaged primarily in biotechnology in Wisconsin but is engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. Tax 11.20 Note(3) Company X manufactures machinery at a plant outside of Wisconsin. Company X operates a facility in Wisconsin that is devoted solely to research and development relating to the products Company X manufactures. Although Company X’s activities in Wisconsin are research and development activities that constitute qualified research, its activities in Wisconsin are not biotechnology. The research and development activities are Company X’s only activities in Wisconsin. Therefore, Company X is neither engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats., nor engaged primarily in biotechnology in Wisconsin. Tax 11.20 Note(4) Company Z manufactures products at a plant outside of Wisconsin. Company Z operates a facility in Wisconsin that is devoted solely to research and development. This is Company Z’s only activity in Wisconsin. The research and development relates to products Company Z currently manufactures as well as to new products that Company Z may manufacture. Some of its research and development activities in Wisconsin constitute biotechnology and qualified research. Since Company Z only performs research and development activities for itself, it does not have any sales revenue from these activities. Company Z reasonably allocates its costs and expenses incurred in conducting all of these research and development activities in Wisconsin between biotechnology and non-biotechnology. More than 50% of these costs and expenses are for biotechnology. Therefore, Company Z is engaged primarily in biotechnology in Wisconsin.
Tax 11.20 Note(5) Company T is a new business located solely in Wisconsin. In its first year of operation, Company T’s only activity is developing new products for itself. Some of these development activities are biotechnology. Since Company T only performs development activities for itself, it will not have any sales revenues during its first year of operations. Company T reasonably allocates its costs and expenses incurred in conducting all of its development activities in Wisconsin between biotechnology and non-biotechnology during its first year of operations. More than 50% of these costs and expenses are for biotechnology. Therefore, Company T is engaged primarily in biotechnology in Wisconsin.
Tax 11.20(2)(c)(c) For purposes of determining whether an activity is qualified research under par. (a), the regulations under Treas. Reg. section 1.41-4 apply, except that qualified research that is funded by a member of a combined group for another member of a combined group shall remain qualified research for purposes of this subsection. Tax 11.20(2)(d)(d) If property or an item purchased without tax by claiming an exemption under par. (a) is used for non-exempt purposes that exceed 5% of total use, that property or item is subject to sales or use tax. Tax 11.20 NoteExamples: (1) Company A is engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. Company A purchases a machine that it will use directly in conducting qualified research at its manufacturing plant in Wisconsin and purchases it exempt from Wisconsin sales tax claiming the exemption in par. (a). After completing the qualified research and having made no use of the machine other than direct use in qualified research, Company A begins using the machine exclusively and directly in its manufacturing operation, which is another exempt use under s. 77.54 (6) (am) 1., Stats. Company A does not owe Wisconsin sales or use tax on its purchase of the machine since it uses the machine only in an exempt manner. Tax 11.20 Note(2) Company B is engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. Company B purchases a machine that it will use directly in conducting qualified research at its manufacturing plant in Wisconsin. More than 5% of Company B’s total use of this machine will be for conducting research and development projects that do not meet the definition of qualified research. Company B’s purchase of the machine is taxable because it is not used exclusively in qualified research. Tax 11.20 Note(3) Company C is engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. Company C develops a new product in an activity that is qualified research. Company C purchases a variety of raw materials. Some of these materials are used exclusively and directly and destroyed in qualified research. Once the qualified research is completed, Company C consumes the remaining raw materials in activities that are not qualified research. Company C’s purchases of the raw materials that it uses exclusively and directly and destroys in qualified research are exempt under par. (a) 2. Company C’s purchases of the raw materials that it uses in activities that are not qualified research do not qualify for exemption under par. (a). Tax 11.20 Note(4) Manufacturer P is engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. Manufacturer P contracts with Company D to produce a prototype that is tangible personal property. Manufacturer P’s primary objective in this transaction is to obtain the prototype, rather than a research and development service. Company D may purchase the materials used to construct the prototype without tax for resale. Manufacturer P will use the prototype exclusively and directly in one of its research and development activities that constitutes qualified research and may claim the exemption under par. (a) on its purchase of the prototype. Tax 11.20 Note(5) Manufacturer F is engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. Manufacturer F contracts with Company E to perform research services. Manufacturer F and Company E are not members of the same combined group. Company E will provide a prototype that is tangible personal property to Manufacturer F along with these services. Manufacturer F’s primary objective in this transaction is to obtain the research and development services. Company E’s primary activity in Wisconsin is the provision of professional engineering services that do not involve biotechnology, and Company E is not a manufacturer. Company E may not claim the exemptions under par. (a), since Company E is neither engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats., nor engaged primarily in biotechnology in Wisconsin. In addition, Company E cannot purchase the materials without tax for resale that it uses to construct the prototype, because Company E uses the prototype in performing its research services. The prototype is transferred to Manufacturer F incidental to the research services. Tax 11.20(2)(e)1.1. A business claiming an exemption under par. (a) shall maintain records to substantiate that at least 95% of the property or item’s total use is direct use in qualified research, including records to establish all of the following: Tax 11.20(2)(e)1.c.c. The activity or activities in which the property or item is used constitute qualified research. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.2. If contemporaneous with the research activity or activities performed, documents that may, as required under subd. 1. c., establish an activity or activities that constitute qualified research include the following: Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.a.a. Materials explaining the research activities conducted, including brochures, pamphlets, press releases, and other similar documents. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.b.b. Submissions to management, the board of directors, review committees, or other similar groups regarding the research projects, activities, and the expenditures. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.c.c. Documents prepared by, or on behalf of, internal audit, including quarterly and annual reports that refer in any manner to the research activities. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.d.d. Minutes, notes, or other similar recordings from budget, board of director, managerial or other similar meetings concerning the research activities. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.e.e. Project authorizations, budgets, or work orders that initiate a research project. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.f.f. Position and department descriptions of employees identified as providing qualified research. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.j.j. Prototype and process testing reports, field and lab verification data/summary data. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.k.k. Papers, treaties, or other published documents regarding the taxpayer’s research. Tax 11.20(2)(e)2.L.L. Complete copies of contracts, including all modifications, letter agreements, memoranda of understanding, or similar documents for research performed by, or on behalf of, a third party. Tax 11.20 NoteExample: This example illustrates records that are generally acceptable as adequate to document the exemptions under par. (a).
Tax 11.20 NoteCompany A is engaged in manufacturing in Wisconsin at a building assessed under s. 70.995, Stats. Company A attempts to make a new and improved widget. Upon approval of a project, Company A documents the scope and goals of the project, the uncertainties that exist in accomplishing these goals, and the processes by which Company A hopes to eliminate the uncertainties. In addition, contemporaneously with conducting the research project, Company A documents: (1) the location or locations at which the research is conducted, (2) the machinery and equipment used in the project and the manner used, (3) the various materials and supplies used in attempting to produce the improved widget, the purpose and manner in which such items were used, (4) the processes applied, (5) the results achieved throughout the research process, and (6) the point at which Company A either abandons the research project or achieves the goal of eliminating the uncertainties involved with the development of the new widget. Company A purchased various machinery and equipment, and supplies and materials used in conjunction with development of the new widget without tax claiming the purchases are exempt under par. (a). In general, contemporaneous records kept in the manner and detail described will be accepted and used by the department in making its determinations regarding whether the taxpayer is entitled to claim the exemptions under par. (a). Tax 11.20(2)(e)3.3. A business claiming an exemption under par. (a) shall provide records described in subd. 2. or any other information as required by the department to verify that activities are qualified research or that machinery, equipment, or other property or items are used exclusively and directly in qualified research. Tax 11.20(3)(3) Exemptions for raising animals used in qualified research or manufacturing. Tax 11.20(3)(a)(a) Sales of the following property and items to a person who is engaged in the business of raising animals are exempt if all of the animals raised by the seller of the animals are sold primarily to biotechnology businesses, public or private institutions of higher education, and governmental units for exclusive and direct use by those entities in qualified research or manufacturing: Tax 11.20(3)(a)1.1. Machines and specific processing equipment, including accessories, attachments, and parts for the machines or equipment, that are used exclusively and directly in raising such animals. Tax 11.20(3)(a)2.2. Seeds for planting, plants, feed, fertilizer, soil conditioners, animal bedding, sprays, pesticides and fungicides, breeding and other livestock, bees, beehives and bee combs, poultry, farm work stock, baling twine and baling wire, containers for fruits, vegetables, grain, hay, silage and animal wastes, plastic bags, plastic sleeves and plastic sheeting used to store or cover hay or silage, drugs, semen for artificial insemination, fuel, and electricity, that are used exclusively and directly in raising such animals. Tax 11.20 NoteExamples: (1) Company A raises various animals that it sells for use in qualified research. Company A sells more than 50% of the animals it raises to biotechnology businesses for exclusive and direct use in qualified research. All of the feed Company A purchases for exclusive and direct use in raising its animals is exempt.
Tax 11.20 Note(2) Company T raises various animals that it sells for use in qualified research. Company T uses cages to raise some of these animals. Company T’s purchases of cages are exempt only if more than 50% of all the animals raised by Company T are sold to biotechnology businesses, public or private institutions of higher education, and governmental units for exclusive and direct use by those organizations in qualified research or manufacturing.
Tax 11.20(3)(b)(b) For purposes of determining whether an activity is qualified research under par. (a), the regulations under Treas. Reg. section 1.41-4 apply, except that qualified research that is funded by a member of a combined group for another member of a combined group shall remain qualified research for purposes of this subsection. Tax 11.20(3)(c)1.1. Except as provided in subd. 2. and sub. (4) (am), a person claiming an exemption under par. (a) shall obtain a “Purchaser’s Statement to Seller for Animals Used in Qualified Research or Manufacturing,” Form S-209, from each of its customers described in par. (a) (intro.) and keep the completed forms as a part of its records to document the number of animals that were raised by the seller and sold to biotechnology businesses, public or private institutions of higher education, and governmental units for exclusive and direct use in qualified research or manufacturing. When completing Form S-209, the purchaser of the animals is attesting to the number of animals purchased and the number of animals used exclusively and directly in qualified research or manufacturing. Tax 11.20(3)(c)2.2. A person is not required to obtain Form S-209 from its customers that are public or private institutions of higher learning and governmental units. For purposes of the exemption in par. (a), animals sold to such customers are deemed to be sold to such customers for exclusive and direct use in qualified research. Tax 11.20 NoteNote: Form S-209 is available on the department’s web site at www.revenue.wi.gov. Tax 11.20(4)(4) Certification of biotechnology businesses by the department. Tax 11.20(4)(a)(a) Except as provided in par. (am), in order to be considered a biotechnology business for purposes of the exemptions under sub. (3), a business shall first obtain certification from the department as prescribed in this subsection. Tax 11.20(4)(am)(am) In lieu of Form S-209, a seller may accept a fully completed exemption certificate, Form S-211 or S-211E from a purchaser that is a biotechnology business indicating the percentage of the animals purchased from the seller that are for exclusive and direct use in qualified research or manufacturing. The seller of the animals may regard such animals claimed as exempt for exclusive and direct use in qualified research or manufacturing, subject to a request by the department that the seller obtain certifications described in par. (a) from the purchasers to verify the exemption. If the department determines that all of the animals raised by the seller are not sold primarily to biotechnology businesses, the department may invalidate the exemption and make an adjustment to reflect the correct tax. Tax 11.20 NoteExample: Company A raises and sells animals exclusively to purchasers that are biotechnology businesses. Based on the Forms S-209 and the fully completed exemption certificates received by Company A, 60% of all the animals it sells are sold to biotechnology businesses for exclusive and direct use in qualified research or manufacturing. Company A is audited by the department. The department requests that certain purchasers of animals be certified by the department as biotechnology businesses for years relating to the audit. Some of these purchasers are not certified as biotechnology businesses by the department. As a result, only 45% of Company A’s sales of animals are considered to be sold to biotechnology businesses for exclusive and direct use in qualified research or manufacturing. Since Company A does not sell more than 50% of the animals to biotechnology businesses, Company A does not qualify for the exemption under sub. (3) (a).
Tax 11.20(4)(b)(b) A business seeking certification or renewal of a certification under this subsection shall apply with the department in the manner prescribed by the department. The department may require any business submitting an application under this paragraph to provide additional information, as determined by the department, prior to the department granting or denying the applicant’s request for certification or renewal of a certification. Tax 11.20 NoteNote: Information concerning the certification process is available on the department’s web site at www.revenue.wi.gov. Tax 11.20 NoteExample: Additional information that may be requested by the department in processing an application includes documentation of the nature of the business’ income and expenses.
Tax 11.20(4)(c)(c) A business shall be certified by the department as a biotechnology business for the period described in par. (d) if, during that period, the business’ activities are primarily biotechnology. Tax 11.20(4)(d)(d) The certification period under par. (c) shall correspond to the business’ tax year as determined for federal income tax purposes, including short years, subject to the following conditions: Tax 11.20(4)(d)1.1. If a business is certified by the department with respect to a previous tax year, the certification is valid only for the previous tax year. Tax 11.20(4)(d)2.2. If a business is certified for a current tax year, the certification is valid until the expected end of the tax year unless, during such tax year the business’ tax year terminates earlier than expected. When a tax year terminates earlier than expected, the certification is valid until the actual end of the tax year as determined for federal income tax purposes.
